History and Development

The World Heritage Site of Polonnaruwa, which is situated in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka, became the island’s second great capital in the medieval era (11^th -13^th  centuries CE). Located midway between the modern Habarana – Batticaloa highway, Polonnaruwa lies in Sri Lanka’s dry zone. The history of Polonnaruwa, however, goes back to pre-Christian times. A Brahmi inscription of the 2^nd century BCE on a cave-shelter in the rocky outcrop Gopala Pabbata records that this cave was donated by a person named Madala, to Buddhist monks. During the Anuradhapura period of the island’s history, Polonnaruwa was critically strategic to the security of the Anuradhapura kingdom, where the capital city was located. During this period, Polonnaruwa functioned as a provincial capital. In around the mid-11^th century CE, Polonnaruwa became the capital of Sri Lanka and the centre of a prosperous economy based on agriculture. Although a comparatively short-lived capital for only two and a half centuries, Polonnaruwa acquired greatness due to the feats of its rulers such as Vijayabahu the Great (1055-1110 CE), Parakramabahu the Great (1153-1186 CE) and Nissanka Malla (1167-1196 CE).  

These rulers devoted themselves to fostering agriculture, religion and social development and the Sinhala kingdom rose to great heights during the Polonnaruwa era. The Polonnaruwa period is regarded as the golden age of agriculture in Sri Lanka. To King Vijayabahu the Great goes the credit of restoring irrigation works damaged during invasions at the end of the Anuradhapura era. To crown these splendid feats of engineering and technological excellence, King Parakramabahu the Great constructed a massive irrigation reservoir, aptly named Parakrama Samudra, the ‘Sea of Parakrama’. This was the golden age of the Polonnaruwa kingdom, and the agricultural development reached its zenith, with Sri Lanka being able to export rice to many lands. The city of Polonnaruwa comprised a citadel (or inner city) and an outer city. The citadel had two types of buildings – the king’s palace and other buildings of the royal court and household on the one hand, and various other buildings for administration, such as the Council Chamber, on the other. The outer city spread far and wide and contained many religious shrines, the chief of which was the Sacred Quadrangle, where the Sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha was enshrined. The great brick ramparts and water moats that surrounded the city served a dual purpose of civic ornamentation and security. There were gate-houses facing all four main directions, and radiating from these, there appears to have been a well-laid-out street system.  

Within the city limits as well as outside, there is an abundance of Buddhist and Hindu religious establishments. It is apparent that most of the Buddhist monasteries in Polonnaruwa date from a period earlier than the Polonnaruwa era (mainly from the 8^th  century CE). Pabalu Vehera and Manik Vehera are two such monasteries, displaying design and planning aspects pre-dating the Polonnaruwa period. Among the Buddhist monasteries and shrines established during the Polonnaruwa period, the Gal Vihara, Sacred Quadrangle, and the monastic university called Alahana Parivena are noteworthy. In addition, a number of ponds were constructed to provide water and adorn the surrounding royal and monastic parks. The Kumara Pokuna and Lotus Pond are some examples. However, from the mid-13^th  century CE, the city with all these monasteries and edifices succumbed to ravages caused by foreign invasions, political turmoil and natural factors.

 

Due to modern antiquarian interest during the mid-19^th  century and the establishment of the Archaeological Department in 1890, archaeological activities were initiated to recover the monuments and the site. Since 1980, the Central Cultural Fund has been engaged in the conservation, management and archaeological research activities of this heritage site.

Architecture

During the Anuradhapura era, stone was widely used for building. In the Polonnaruwa period, however, brick was used instead. The construction of a large number of buildings in a comparatively short time thus became possible during the Polonnaruwa period. The gedige (vaulted) building style using bricks, which originated in Anuradhapura, became quite popular and reached a climax in the Polonnaruwa period. Massive brick-built structures like the Lankatilake, Tivanka and Thuparama Image Houses are clear indications of this. The construction of stupas of colossal scale, which is a characteristic feature in the city of Anuradhapura, was also continued at Polonnaruwa. Rankot Vehera and Kiri Vehera are such stupas at Polonnaruwa, displaying the architectural and engineering skills of the period.

Among Polonnaruwa’s stately medieval buildings, the graceful beauty of the Vatadage (circular stupa-shrine) takes pride of place. The stone carvings on the vertical face of its elevated plinth and the slender stone pillars that supported its conical roof add great elegance to the entire edifice. The smaller but exquisitely beautiful Nissankalata Mandapa has rows of graceful pillars shaped like lotus stems. Significantly, the only royal palace found in Anuradhapura was constructed in the Polonnaruwa period by King Vijayabahu I. Though the celebrated Sigiriya, which flourished during the Anuradhapura era, had a royal palace, only the foundations remain today. Thus, to visualize what an ancient royal abode in Sri Lanka looked like, one is entirely indebted to the Palace of King Parakramabahu the Great, in Polonnaruwa. The massive brick walls of this palace had been reinforced with huge timber members. This seven-storied palace has been preserved up to a height of two storeys, and according to the historical chronicles, it had a thousand rooms, a dancing hall, a banqueting hall, and many other adjuncts. Those walls are still preserved up to a height of two storeys. The immense multi-storied Chapter House called the Baddhasima Prasada, located at the monastic university of Alahana Parivena, had nine storeys. A completely new trend appears in the religious as well as architectural aspects in the Polonnaruwa period. This is the construction of several Hindu shrines (devale) in Polonnaruwa, built according to South Indian architectural traditions. The stone-built Siva Devale Nos. 1 and 2 and the brick-built Śiva and Vishnu Devales within the Nai-pena Vihara are worthy of mention. Another feature is the influence of Hinduism on the embellishment of Buddhist image houses in this period. The exterior facades of the image houses are intricately ornamented with figures of lions, demi-gods (varmana) and abodes (vimana) with residing deities. Such embellishments also reflect the lavishly ornate style typical of Hindu shrines. Humour and a lively animation enliven these carvings of lions and demi-gods and display a high level of artistic skills and creativity.

Sculpture

The colossal rock-cut Buddha images at Gal Vihara, the most celebrated site in Polonnaruwa seem to portray the great veneration and awe that the sculptor showed towards his subject, the Buddha. These masterpieces are so superbly executed that they arouse in the beholder the edifying Buddhist virtue of loving kindness. No one who looks upon these statues can come away without being deeply moved. The gigantic brick-built Buddha images of Lankatilake and Tivanka Image Houses, though weathered to some extent, are of the same class as those of Gal Vihara. The colossal statue at Potgul Vehera, which has been interpreted as the likeness of a king or a sage, is a unique example of secular

During the Polonnaruwa period, Hindu influence is especially evident in sculpture as well. Local artists and sculptors created an abundance of statues of Hindu deities depicting significant postures or attitudes. These artists followed South Indian aesthetic traditions of art and sculpture. Among these works of art, the exquisite statuettes of Śiva-Parvati and Śiva-Nataraj merit special mention. The unusually large figures of Siva-Nataraj and Ganesha are also important. There is a noteworthy difference between the moonstones (carved entrance stones) of the Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa periods. In the Polonnaruwa moonstones, the ox is omitted, clearly a result of the presence of Hindu religious traditions.

Paintings

Image-houses at Polonnaruwa had an abundance of wall paintings done during the Polonnaruwa period. They have mostly been preserved in the Tivanka Image House. The paintings of the invocation of deities (Devārādhanā) have followed the grand tradition and have thus become renowned, as they depict a rhythmic flow of line and figure. Those on the front wall of the shrine are executed in the lesser tradition. Paintings in the same style are found in the Gal Vihara. The line drawings in these paintings are more intricate than the more famous Sigiriya paintings. Rhythmic body movements are also a feature in these paintings. There is strong evidence of paintings on the walls of the Potgul Vehera (monastery) as well as other similar buildings, but unfortunately, much of these have been lost.

Earthenware Pottery

A great profusion of pottery has been discovered during archaeological excavations at Polonnaruwa. While similar finds at Anuradhapura have shown earthenware of a high gloss and quality, Polonnaruwa earthenware lacks this. However, utensils not found in Anuradhapura, have been found in the Polonnaruwa site. These comprise clay lamps, lamp accessories and parts of huge lamps, all artistically turned out. The large clay lamp now in the museum is beautifully turned out, though weak in technology. The large clay pot-holders also deserve mention, being of a unique design.

The Minting of Coins

In the Anuradhapura era, there is evidence of local as well as foreign coins. The abundance of coins minted by the rulers in the Polonnaruwa period, which have been discovered, suggests that there was economic prosperity at the time. Copper was widely used for coinage, and though they show much similarity, the coins were inscribed with the name of the ruler at the time.

Medicine and Medical Science

The monastic hospital in the precincts of Polonnaruwa’s Alahana Parivena’s complex reveals a mass of fascinating information about medieval indigenous medical science and practices. The hospital had facilities to treat residents as well as ‘out’ (external) patients. Surgical tools recovered during excavations show that operations were performed here by medical surgeons. A ‘medicine boat’ (a large stone trough) was found in one ward, where patients were immersed in herbal solutions and brews for the treatment of certain ailments. It could be assumed that specialist clinical service was provided in a range of wards. It is highly probable that many monks would have served as medical practitioners here, as the service of healing and helping the sick was compatible with the all-embracing compassion of Buddhism.

International Relations

Even during the Anuradhapura period and long before Polonnaruwa became Sri Lanka’s capital city, rulers showed a keen interest in the present site of Polonnaruwa, due to its proximity to the great harbour of Trincomalee (referred to at the time as Gōkanna Tittha), on the north-eastern coast. This closeness to the best natural harbour in the Indian Ocean was the key factor in the steady growth of relations with foreign nations. Polonnaruwa was also strategically placed in the interior to ward off and resist foreign invasions, especially from the east coast. The great Mahaweli River, which flows not far from Polonnaruwa and enters the sea at Trincomalee, also afforded easy transport for traders and their merchandise to the interior of the country. Coins dating back to the Sung dynasty of China (12th century CE), as well as Chinaware, have been found in Polonnaruwa. Another interesting find is part of a tea-pot called Timokku, used exclusively by Chinese royalty in their tea ceremonies. This rare object seems to suggest a visit by a Chinese emissary to Sri Lanka from the royal court of the Sung dynasty. The priceless Chinaware discovered here is in a shade of black, with an intricate line design and is extremely delicate. It is quite significant that even in China, complete vessels of this variety have not been found.

Polonnaruwa rulers also had religious and diplomatic relations with countries of Southeast Asia, such as Thailand. The architectural style of the Satmahal Prāsada (tiered stupa) at the Sacred Quadrangle resembles the stupa style of countries of this región; evidently, therefore, it could be assumed that Sri Lanka had cultural links with these countries during the Polonnaruwa era.

Advice to Visitors

It is recommended that the best time to view the monuments and worship at shrines is in daytime, when visibility is at its best. The Museum is open daily from 7.00 am to 6.00 pm. On special occasions, it is kept open for longer periods. Every visitor should bear in mind that he/she is entering a place containing religious shrines and monuments. The actions listed below are completely forbidden and carry penalties imposed by the Archaeology Ordinance.

• Damaging monuments and objects of archaeological value, removal, taking away, despoiling and writing on them.
• Damaging trees and plants, and the removal of these, also carries penalties.
• It should be noted that the taking of photographs with the back facing the Buddha images or touching them in a way that shows disrespect to the religious and cultural values of the country are actions that are prohibited.
• The taking of photographs/videos for commercial /professional purposes should not be attempted without securing the prior permission of the Central Cultural Fund.

Visitors are not allowed to bring polythene or plastic containers to the site. Please cooperate with the maintenance staff to keep the place clean by putting waste materials into the garbage cans provided. Visitors are advised to behave in a disciplined manner within the archaeological site. Playing musical instruments, the use of loudspeakers, radios, etc., as well as the consumption of liquor, should all be avoided. Partaking of food should only be done in places suitable for this purpose.

Further Information

Head Office

Director General
Central Cultural Fund
212/1, Bauddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo 7

Tel. +94 112 587 912/+94 112 552 014/+94 112 508 973
Fax: 011- 2589194

Polonnaruwa

Project Manager
Central Cultural Fund
Polonnaruwa

Tel. +94 272 222 121
Fax: +94 272 222 121